Puritans' Chief Goal: More Than Just Freedom?

The religious reform movement known as Puritanism, emerging within the Church of England, advocated for a purification of religious practices and a return to what they perceived as the original tenets of Protestantism. The Massachusetts Bay Colony, established in 1630, served as a principal location where Puritans sought to enact their religious and social vision, yet historians and theologians continue to debate what was the chief goal of the Puritans, extending beyond the simple desire for religious freedom. Examining the writings and sermons of prominent figures like John Winthrop alongside the social and political structures they established, reveals the complexities inherent in understanding Puritan motivations and whether their aspirations were primarily focused on creating a "city upon a hill" or something more theocratic in nature.

The Enduring Footprint of Puritanism in Early America

Puritanism stands as a monumental religious and social movement, born from the crucible of 16th and 17th century England. Its influence reached across the Atlantic, profoundly shaping the nascent American society.

The Puritans, driven by a fervent desire to purify the Church of England, sought to establish a new Zion in the New World. Their aspirations for a society governed by biblical principles and their intricate theological framework indelibly marked the social, political, and religious fabric of early America. Understanding their impact requires a nuanced exploration of their origins, beliefs, and the complex interplay between their ideals and the realities of colonial life.

Origins and Aims of Puritanism

Emerging from the Reformation, Puritanism represented a distinct strain of Protestantism. They believed that the Church of England retained too many vestiges of Catholic ritual and hierarchy.

Their aim was nothing short of a complete religious and societal overhaul. This involved stripping away perceived impurities from religious practice, emphasizing personal piety, and constructing a community grounded in covenantal theology. This vision propelled them to seek refuge and opportunity in the uncharted territories of North America.

Thesis: Shaping American Identity

This exploration asserts that Puritan tenets, key figures, theological concepts, and organizational structures profoundly shaped early America's social, political, and religious landscape. Their legacy continues to resonate within the American identity.

The Puritan influence extended beyond religious practice, permeating laws, education, social norms, and even the economic ethos of the early colonies. Their commitment to education, for instance, laid the foundation for a robust intellectual tradition. However, their strict moral code and at times, intolerance, also cast a long shadow.

Scope and Sources

This analysis will delve into the multifaceted impact of Puritanism on early America. By drawing upon a range of primary sources such as sermons, personal diaries, and legal documents. It aims to provide a vivid portrayal of Puritan life and thought.

Complementing these firsthand accounts will be secondary scholarship that offers diverse perspectives on the Puritan experience. This will provide a balanced historical analysis. The goal is to illuminate the complexities of their influence and foster a deeper understanding of their enduring legacy.

Roots of Reform: Puritanism's Genesis in England

The Enduring Footprint of Puritanism in Early America. Puritanism stands as a monumental religious and social movement, born from the crucible of 16th and 17th century England. Its influence reached across the Atlantic, profoundly shaping the nascent American society. The Puritans, driven by a fervent desire to purify the Church of England, sought to...

This section explores the formative years of Puritanism in England, examining the complex interplay of religious, political, and social forces that gave rise to this influential movement. Understanding Puritanism's English roots is crucial to grasping its subsequent trajectory and impact on the development of early America.

The Rise of Protestantism and its Influence on England

The seeds of Puritanism were sown in the fertile ground of the Protestant Reformation, which swept across Europe in the 16th century. The Reformation, ignited by Martin Luther's challenge to the Catholic Church, shattered the religious unity of Europe and unleashed a wave of religious innovation and dissent.

England's own break with Rome, initiated by King Henry VIII in the 1530s, created a unique religious landscape. While the English monarchy embraced Protestantism, the precise form of the Church of England remained a subject of intense debate and contention.

Various factions emerged, each vying for influence and advocating for different models of religious reform. It was within this turbulent environment that Puritanism began to take shape.

Dissatisfaction and the Call for Reformation

Puritans were united by a shared sense of dissatisfaction with the state of the Church of England. They believed that the Church had not gone far enough in purging itself of Catholic rituals, ceremonies, and doctrines.

Puritans viewed many practices as superstitious and idolatrous, hindering genuine spiritual experience. They sought a simpler, more biblically-centered form of worship, emphasizing preaching, prayer, and personal piety.

Their desire was not merely to tweak existing structures but to fundamentally reshape the Church of England according to their understanding of God's word. This aspiration for a "purer" church gave rise to the name "Puritan."

Key Figures Shaping Puritan Thought

Several influential figures shaped the development of Puritan thought in England. Their writings, sermons, and activism helped to articulate Puritan ideals and mobilize support for reform.

John Cotton

John Cotton, initially a prominent minister in Boston, Lincolnshire, became a leading voice within the Puritan movement. Cotton's sermons, characterized by their intellectual rigor and passionate delivery, attracted a large following.

His later emigration to the Massachusetts Bay Colony solidified his reputation as a key figure in the development of New England Puritanism. He became a powerful force, advocating for the establishment of a theocratic society.

The Monarchy's Role

The attitudes and policies of English monarchs significantly impacted the trajectory of Puritanism. Queen Elizabeth I, while maintaining a moderate Protestant stance, often clashed with Puritans over issues of religious conformity.

Under James I, Puritans hoped for greater religious latitude, but his reign brought continued pressure to conform to Anglican practices. Charles I's policies were even more hostile to Puritanism, leading to increased persecution and prompting many Puritans to seek refuge in North America.

Separatists vs. Non-Separatists: Diverging Paths

Within the broader Puritan movement, two main factions emerged: Separatists and Non-Separatists.

Separatists, also known as Pilgrims, believed that the Church of England was so corrupt that it was impossible to reform from within. They advocated for complete separation from the Church and the establishment of independent congregations.

Non-Separatists, on the other hand, believed that the Church of England could be reformed. They sought to purify it from within, working to change its doctrines and practices. This group initially aimed to reform the existing church structures, without breaking away.

"A City Upon a Hill": The Puritan Migration to New England

Having explored the roots of Puritanism in England, it's crucial to understand the pivotal event that cemented their influence on American history: the migration to New England. This relocation was not merely a change of scenery but a deliberate act driven by profound religious convictions and the desire to construct a society aligned with their ideals.

The Quest for Religious Freedom and a Purified Church

The motivations behind the Puritan emigration were complex, yet the central theme was a burning desire for religious freedom.

Puritans sought not a universal religious tolerance as understood today, but rather the freedom to practice their own faith without interference and to implement their vision of a reformed church.

They aimed to create a society where the church and state worked in harmony, guided by biblical principles. The established Church of England, in their view, remained too closely tied to Catholic traditions and insufficiently reformed.

This dissatisfaction propelled them to seek new lands where they could establish a "purified church" and live according to their interpretation of God's will.

The Puritan Understanding of Religious Freedom

It is essential to understand that the Puritan concept of religious freedom differed drastically from modern notions of religious pluralism. While seeking liberty for themselves, they were not necessarily advocates for the religious freedom of others. Their vision was one of a unified religious community adhering to strict Puritan doctrines.

Dissent was often met with intolerance, as evidenced by the banishment of individuals like Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams, who challenged the established religious order. This apparent contradiction highlights the complexities inherent in the Puritan experiment and their understanding of religious liberty.

Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay: Distinct Expressions of Puritan Ideals

The Puritan migration resulted in the founding of two significant colonies: Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay. While both were rooted in Puritan beliefs, they represented distinct approaches to establishing a new society.

The Plymouth Settlement and William Bradford's Role

Plymouth Colony, established by Separatist Puritans (also known as Pilgrims), was one of the earliest English settlements in North America.

William Bradford, a key leader and long-time governor of Plymouth, played a crucial role in the colony's survival and development. His writings, particularly "Of Plymouth Plantation," provide invaluable insights into the Pilgrims' motivations, experiences, and challenges.

Plymouth's emphasis was on separation from the Church of England and the establishment of a self-governing community based on religious principles.

John Winthrop and the Massachusetts Bay Colony

The Massachusetts Bay Colony, founded later by non-separating Puritans, aimed to reform the Church of England through their example in the New World.

John Winthrop, the colony's first governor, was a central figure in shaping its social, political, and religious landscape. His leadership and vision were instrumental in establishing a thriving and relatively stable society.

Massachusetts Bay sought to create a model society that would serve as an example for England and the rest of the world.

Winthrop's Vision: A "City Upon a Hill"

John Winthrop's famous sermon, "A Model of Christian Charity," delivered aboard the Arbella in 1630, outlined the Puritans' aspirations for their new community. This sermon introduced the iconic metaphor of a "City Upon a Hill."

Winthrop called upon the Puritans to be a beacon of righteousness, an exemplary Christian community that would be observed by all.

This vision implied a sacred covenant with God, obligating the Puritans to live according to His commandments and to create a just and godly society.

Failure to do so, Winthrop warned, would result in divine judgment and the forfeiture of their divinely ordained mission.

Winthrop's sermon had profound implications for the social and political structure of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

It emphasized the importance of communal unity, social responsibility, and the subordination of individual interests to the common good.

The "City Upon a Hill" ideal became a powerful motivating force, shaping the colony's laws, institutions, and social norms. It also laid the foundation for a sense of American exceptionalism, the belief that the United States has a unique destiny to serve as a model for the world.

Shaping Society: Core Puritan Beliefs and Practices

Having established the context of the Puritan migration and their vision for a "City Upon a Hill," it's essential to delve into the core beliefs and practices that structured their society. Puritanism was not merely a set of religious doctrines; it was a comprehensive worldview that permeated every aspect of life, from governance and social interactions to education and law. Understanding these fundamentals is crucial to grasping the unique character of early American society.

Theological Foundations of Puritanism

At the heart of Puritan society lay a set of deeply held theological convictions, primarily influenced by Calvinism. These beliefs shaped their understanding of God, humanity, and the world, providing a framework for their social and political organization.

Calvinistic Influence

Puritan theology was heavily indebted to the teachings of John Calvin, the 16th-century reformer. Calvinism emphasized the absolute sovereignty of God, the depravity of humanity, and the necessity of divine grace for salvation.

These tenets provided the basis for Puritan doctrines concerning predestination, covenant theology, and the importance of scripture. The Puritans sought to create a society governed by God's laws as they understood them through scripture and Calvinistic interpretations.

The Doctrine of Predestination

One of the most distinctive and controversial aspects of Puritan belief was the doctrine of predestination. This doctrine held that God had predetermined who would be saved (the "elect") and who would be damned, irrespective of their actions in this life.

This did not lead to fatalism, as some might assume. Instead, Puritans believed that while salvation was entirely God's choice, individuals could experience visible signs of grace through their behavior and adherence to God's laws. This belief fueled a constant striving for moral perfection and a rigorous self-examination within the community.

Covenant Theology

Covenant Theology played a crucial role in shaping Puritan social relationships and governance. Puritans believed that God had entered into covenants, or agreements, with humanity.

These covenants, such as the Covenant of Works (between God and Adam) and the Covenant of Grace (between God and believers in Christ), established the terms of their relationship with God.

This concept of covenant extended beyond the individual level, shaping the structure of their communities and their relationship with civil authority. Churches were formed through covenants among their members, and the social order was maintained by enforcing adherence to agreed-upon principles.

Structure and Governance of Puritan Churches

The organization and governance of Puritan churches reflected their desire for religious purity and local autonomy. The principles of Congregationalism, the role of "Visible Saints," and the functions of churches were central to their societal structure.

Principles of Congregationalism

Congregationalism, the dominant form of church governance in Puritan New England, emphasized the autonomy of individual congregations. Each church was self-governing, electing its own ministers and managing its own affairs, free from hierarchical control by bishops or other external authorities.

This principle of local control resonated with the broader Puritan emphasis on individual responsibility and self-reliance. It shaped their political thinking, fostering a spirit of independence and a resistance to centralized authority.

Role and Function of Congregational Churches

Puritan churches were more than just places of worship. They were the central hub of community life, serving as forums for social interaction, education, and political deliberation.

The church was where births, marriages, and deaths were recorded; where moral disputes were adjudicated; and where the community gathered to hear sermons and reaffirm their covenant with God and with one another.

Identifying "Visible Saints"

Membership in a Puritan church was not automatic but required a demonstration of genuine religious experience and moral character. Prospective members had to provide a public testimony of their conversion and demonstrate their adherence to Puritan values.

Those who were deemed to have credibly displayed a transformative relationship with God were admitted as full members, or "Visible Saints," and were entitled to participate in church governance and receive the sacraments. This emphasis on visible sainthood reinforced the importance of moral behavior and religious commitment within the community.

Daily Life and Social Control in Puritan Communities

The beliefs and practices of the Puritans heavily influenced their daily lives. The legal and social structures were closely tied to their interpretation of Biblical law.

Emphasis on Education and Literacy

Puritans placed a high value on education and literacy because they believed that individuals needed to be able to read and understand the Bible for themselves.

They established schools and colleges, such as Harvard College, to train ministers and educate the broader population. This commitment to education had a lasting impact on American society, fostering a culture of learning and intellectual inquiry.

Role of Biblical Law

Puritan legal systems were deeply influenced by biblical law. They sought to create a society where civil laws reflected what they believed to be God's moral commands.

While they did not implement a literal interpretation of the entire Old Testament legal code, they drew heavily from biblical principles in areas such as marriage, family, property, and crime. This emphasis on biblical law reinforced the connection between religious belief and social order.

Social Control Mechanisms

Puritan communities employed a variety of social control mechanisms to maintain order and enforce conformity to their values. These mechanisms included public shaming, fines, imprisonment, and, in extreme cases, banishment.

The goal was not simply to punish offenders but to promote repentance and restore social harmony. Community members were expected to monitor each other's behavior and report any transgressions to the authorities.

Significance of Sermons

Sermons were a central part of Puritan life, serving as a means of religious instruction, moral guidance, and social commentary. Puritan ministers were highly educated and skilled orators who delivered lengthy and complex sermons on a weekly basis.

These sermons explored theological doctrines, interpreted biblical passages, and applied religious principles to everyday life. They played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and reinforcing Puritan values.

Seeds of Change: Dissent and Diversification within Puritanism

Having established the context of the Puritan migration and their vision for a "City Upon a Hill," it's essential to delve into the core beliefs and practices that structured their society. Puritanism was not merely a set of religious doctrines; it was a comprehensive worldview that permeated every aspect of life. However, the seemingly monolithic structure of Puritan society contained within it the seeds of its own transformation. Dissenting voices, challenging established norms, and theological interpretations arose, leading to significant controversies and the eventual diversification of the Puritan experiment in New England. These challenges exposed inherent tensions within Puritan ideology and played a crucial role in shaping the future of religious and political thought in America.

The Antinomian Controversy and Anne Hutchinson's Challenge

One of the earliest and most significant challenges to Puritan authority came in the form of the Antinomian Controversy, led by Anne Hutchinson. Hutchinson, a charismatic and intelligent woman, arrived in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1634 and quickly gained a following through her religious meetings and interpretations of sermons. Her teachings, deemed heretical by the Puritan leadership, centered on the idea that salvation was achieved through faith alone (sola fide) and that outward behavior was not necessarily an indicator of inward grace. This directly challenged the Puritan emphasis on visible sainthood and the importance of adhering to moral and legal codes.

Hutchinson's views, labeled as Antinomian (meaning "against the law"), threatened the very foundation of Puritan social order. The Puritan ministers and magistrates feared that her teachings would undermine their authority and lead to social chaos. Hutchinson was brought to trial in 1637, where she skillfully defended her beliefs, citing Scripture and challenging the legitimacy of the court's authority. However, her claim of receiving direct revelation from God proved to be her undoing, as it was seen as a direct challenge to the established clergy's role as interpreters of God's word.

Found guilty of heresy and sedition, Hutchinson was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Her expulsion, along with her followers, highlighted the limits of religious tolerance within Puritan society and the lengths to which the leadership would go to maintain doctrinal purity and social control. The Antinomian Controversy serves as a critical example of the tensions inherent in a society that sought to balance religious freedom with the need for social cohesion.

Roger Williams and the Founding of Rhode Island

Another prominent figure who challenged the prevailing Puritan orthodoxy was Roger Williams. Williams, a minister with strong Separatist views, arrived in Massachusetts in 1631. He quickly became known for his controversial opinions, which included advocating for the separation of church and state, questioning the validity of the colony's charter, and arguing for fair treatment of Native Americans. These views put him at odds with the Puritan leadership, who believed in the interconnectedness of religious and civil authority and sought to maintain control over land distribution and relations with the indigenous population.

Williams's most radical idea was his insistence on religious freedom for all individuals, regardless of their beliefs. This was a stark contrast to the Puritan concept of religious freedom, which primarily applied to those who adhered to their own specific doctrines. Williams argued that the government had no right to interfere with matters of conscience and that individuals should be free to worship as they pleased.

In 1635, Williams was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for his "new and dangerous opinions." He fled south and, with the help of Native Americans, established the settlement of Providence, which would later become the colony of Rhode Island. Rhode Island became a haven for religious dissenters, offering a refuge for those who faced persecution in other colonies. The colony's charter, granted in 1663, explicitly guaranteed religious freedom, making it a groundbreaking experiment in religious pluralism.

Thomas Hooker and the Fundamentals of Connecticut

While Roger Williams championed religious freedom and separation of church and state, Thomas Hooker focused on expanding political participation. Hooker, a respected minister, disagreed with the Massachusetts Bay Colony's restrictive voting laws, which limited suffrage to church members. He believed that all property-owning men should have the right to vote, regardless of their religious status.

Hooker and his followers migrated westward and founded the colony of Connecticut in 1636. In 1639, they adopted the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, considered by some historians to be the first written constitution in America. The Fundamental Orders established a representative government with an elected governor and legislature, and it granted voting rights to a broader segment of the population than in Massachusetts.

While the Fundamental Orders did not explicitly separate church and state, they did establish a framework for a more democratic and inclusive government. Connecticut's emphasis on broader voting rights and representative government represented a significant departure from the more theocratic model of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Hooker's vision laid the groundwork for a more participatory and representative form of government that would later influence the development of American political thought.

These instances of dissent and diversification within Puritanism illustrate the complex and evolving nature of early American society. The challenges posed by figures like Anne Hutchinson, Roger Williams, and Thomas Hooker exposed the limitations and contradictions of Puritan ideology. Their actions led to the founding of new colonies that offered alternative models of religious and political organization, contributing to the gradual erosion of Puritan hegemony and paving the way for a more pluralistic and democratic society in America.

Transformation and Decline: The Evolving Landscape of Puritanism

Having navigated the initial fervor and establishment of Puritan society, it becomes crucial to understand the internal and external pressures that led to its gradual transformation and eventual decline. Puritanism, despite its initial strength, faced a complex web of challenges that tested its foundational principles and reshaped its influence on the American landscape. Generational shifts, crises of faith, and the emergence of new religious movements played significant roles in this evolution.

Generational Challenges and the Half-Way Covenant

One of the primary challenges to Puritanism's sustained dominance stemmed from generational shifts. As the initial generation of deeply committed religious zealots passed, their descendants often exhibited less fervent piety. This waning religious enthusiasm created a dilemma for the established church.

The original requirements for full church membership, which included a demonstrable conversion experience, became increasingly difficult to meet for the younger generation. This led to a decline in church membership and a concern that the influence of the church was diminishing.

In response, Puritan leaders introduced the Half-Way Covenant in 1662. This compromise allowed the children of baptized but unconverted church members to be baptized themselves, thus granting them partial membership.

While intended to bolster church rolls, the Half-Way Covenant proved controversial. Critics argued that it diluted the purity of the church and undermined the importance of a genuine conversion experience. This debate further fractured Puritan unity and signaled a departure from its original ideals.

The Salem Witch Trials: A Crisis of Faith

The Salem Witch Trials of 1692 represent a particularly dark and complex chapter in Puritan history. These trials, which resulted in the execution of twenty innocent people, exposed deep-seated anxieties and social tensions within the community.

While belief in witchcraft was widespread in the 17th century, the intensity and scale of the Salem episode were unprecedented. Factors such as economic hardship, political instability, and existing rivalries within the community likely contributed to the hysteria.

The trials also revealed a crisis of faith within Puritan society. The accusations and subsequent trials were fueled by religious extremism, fear, and a breakdown of social order.

The Salem Witch Trials ultimately served as a stark reminder of the dangers of religious fanaticism and the fragility of social cohesion. The subsequent public apologies and reversals of convictions marked a turning point in Puritan thought and a move toward greater skepticism and reason.

The Great Awakening and the Transformation of American Protestantism

The Great Awakening, a series of religious revivals that swept through the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, further transformed the religious landscape and challenged Puritan dominance. Preachers like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield emphasized personal experience and emotional engagement with religion, rather than strict adherence to doctrine.

This new style of preaching appealed to a wider audience and led to the growth of new denominations, such as Baptists and Methodists. While some Puritans embraced the revival, others viewed it with suspicion, fearing its emotional excesses and its potential to undermine traditional authority.

The Great Awakening challenged the established order and contributed to the fragmentation of Puritanism. It also fostered a greater sense of religious pluralism and individual religious experience, paving the way for a more diverse and democratic religious landscape in America.

The Evolving Role of Harvard College

Harvard College, founded in 1636, was initially established to train Puritan ministers. However, as society evolved, so did the role of the institution.

Over time, Harvard broadened its curriculum to include secular subjects and began to attract students from diverse backgrounds. This shift reflected a growing emphasis on reason and intellectual inquiry, even within a traditionally religious institution.

While Harvard continued to play a role in shaping religious thought, it also became a center for intellectual and scientific advancement, contributing to the broader Enlightenment movement in America. The evolution of Harvard symbolizes the gradual secularization of American society and the declining influence of Puritanism.

A Lasting Impact: The Enduring Legacy of Puritanism in America

Having navigated the initial fervor and establishment of Puritan society, it becomes crucial to understand the internal and external pressures that led to its gradual transformation and eventual decline. Puritanism, despite its initial strength, faced a complex web of challenges that ultimately reshaped its role in American society. However, its influence did not simply vanish; rather, it evolved and permeated various facets of American life, leaving behind a rich and often paradoxical legacy that continues to shape the nation to this day.

This section reflects on that lasting influence of Puritanism on American values, institutions, and culture, acknowledging both the positive contributions and the problematic aspects of their legacy.

Shaping American Values and Institutions

Puritanism's impact on the development of American values and institutions is undeniable. Their emphasis on hard work, self-reliance, and education laid the groundwork for many of the nation's core beliefs. The concept of a "city upon a hill," with its aspiration for moral and social excellence, has resonated throughout American history, inspiring movements for reform and social justice.

The Protestant Work Ethic and American Capitalism

One of the most significant contributions of Puritanism is the development of the Protestant work ethic. This concept, rooted in the belief that hard work and worldly success are signs of God's favor, profoundly influenced the development of American capitalism.

The Puritans believed that individuals had a calling to work diligently in their chosen professions, not only for personal gain but also for the glory of God.

This emphasis on diligence, frugality, and deferred gratification created a culture conducive to economic growth and innovation. The Protestant work ethic fostered a spirit of entrepreneurship and a relentless pursuit of success that has become a defining characteristic of American capitalism.

Ongoing Debates: Idealism and Intolerance

Despite its positive contributions, the legacy of Puritanism is not without its complexities and controversies. The Puritans' fervent pursuit of religious purity often led to intolerance and persecution of those who held different beliefs.

The Salem Witch Trials stand as a stark reminder of the dangers of religious extremism and the suppression of dissenting voices. Understanding Puritanism requires acknowledging both its idealism and its darker aspects, recognizing that their vision of a just society was often marred by prejudice and exclusion.

This duality has fueled ongoing debates about the true nature of Puritanism's legacy.

Some scholars emphasize their contributions to democratic ideals and social reform, while others focus on their authoritarian tendencies and their role in perpetuating social inequalities.

A Profound and Complex Impact

In conclusion, the impact of Puritanism on the development of American identity and culture is profound and complex.

Their emphasis on education, self-governance, and moral responsibility has left an indelible mark on American institutions and values. At the same time, their history of intolerance and persecution serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of religious extremism and the importance of protecting individual liberties.

Ultimately, understanding Puritanism requires a nuanced and critical perspective, acknowledging both its positive and negative aspects.

By engaging with the full spectrum of their legacy, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the forces that have shaped American society and continue to influence its trajectory.

So, were the Puritans just looking for a chill place to practice their faith? Nah. As we've seen, their chief goal was actually building a perfect society, a "City upon a Hill" shining bright for everyone to see. It's a fascinating, and sometimes unsettling, ambition, and definitely gives us something to think about when we look at the early days of America.