What is Social Deviance? A US Guide

Social deviance, a concept often explored within the frameworks established by institutions like the American Sociological Association, represents actions or behaviors violating societal norms and expectations. Émile Durkheim, a prominent sociologist, theorized that deviance serves a function in clarifying norms and reinforcing social solidarity. The manifestation of deviance can significantly vary across different regions, with examples in urban centers like New York City often differing from those in more rural settings. Understanding what in broad terms is the definition of social deviance requires examining the reactions it provokes and the social control mechanisms, such as legal systems, that attempt to regulate it.

Deviance, a concept central to sociological inquiry, refers to actions or behaviors that violate social norms and expectations within a given society or group.

However, deviance is not an objective or universal phenomenon; instead, it is relative, varying across cultures, time periods, and social contexts.

Understanding deviance is crucial for comprehending how societies maintain social order, exert control, and define the boundaries of acceptable behavior.

Defining Deviance: A Sociological Lens

At its core, deviance involves the transgression of established norms. These norms can range from informal customs and traditions to formal laws and regulations.

What is considered deviant in one society may be perfectly acceptable in another, highlighting the cultural relativity of deviance. For example, certain forms of dress, dietary practices, or expressions of religious belief may be deemed deviant in some contexts while being considered normal or even virtuous in others.

Similarly, the definition of deviance can shift over time within the same society. Attitudes toward issues like same-sex marriage, marijuana use, and body modification have undergone significant transformations in recent decades, reflecting changing social values and beliefs.

The Functionalist Perspective

From a functionalist perspective, deviance plays a vital role in reinforcing social boundaries and promoting social cohesion. By identifying and punishing deviant behavior, societies reaffirm their shared values and expectations.

This process clarifies what is considered acceptable and unacceptable, strengthening the collective identity and sense of belonging among members of the group. Émile Durkheim, a pioneer of sociology, argued that deviance is not only inevitable but also functional for society.

The Significance of Studying Deviance

The study of deviance offers valuable insights into the workings of social order and the mechanisms through which societies maintain control.

By examining the causes and consequences of deviant behavior, sociologists can better understand how social norms are established, enforced, and challenged. This knowledge is essential for informing social policies and interventions aimed at reducing harmful deviance and promoting positive social change.

Furthermore, studying deviance allows us to examine its impact on individuals and communities. Deviance can have both negative and positive consequences.

While it may lead to social stigma, discrimination, and exclusion, it can also challenge existing power structures, promote innovation, and foster social change. Understanding these complex dynamics is crucial for creating a more just and equitable society.

Classical Sociological Theories of Deviance

Deviance has long been a subject of sociological inquiry, with classical theories providing foundational frameworks for understanding its causes and consequences.

These theories, developed by pioneering sociologists such as Émile Durkheim, Robert Merton, Edwin Sutherland, and Travis Hirschi, offer distinct yet complementary perspectives on why individuals engage in deviant behavior.

Examining these classical theories provides essential insights into the complex interplay between social structures, individual choices, and the dynamics of deviance.

Émile Durkheim and Anomie

Émile Durkheim, a foundational figure in sociology, introduced the concept of anomie to explain deviance.

Anomie: A State of Normlessness

Anomie, in Durkheim's view, refers to a state of normlessness or social deregulation where established norms and values are weakened or absent.

This can occur during periods of rapid social change or disruption, leaving individuals without clear guidelines for behavior.

When individuals lack a sense of social regulation, they may be more likely to engage in deviant behavior, as the usual constraints on their actions are diminished.

Deviance and Social Solidarity

Durkheim also argued that deviance, paradoxically, plays a functional role in reinforcing social solidarity and defining moral boundaries.

By identifying and punishing deviant behavior, societies reaffirm their shared values and expectations.

This process clarifies what is considered acceptable and unacceptable, strengthening the collective identity and sense of belonging among members of the group.

Social Change and Deviance Rates

The impact of social change on deviance rates is a key theme in Durkheim's work.

He observed that periods of rapid industrialization and urbanization often lead to increased rates of crime and deviance, as traditional social structures and norms are disrupted.

For example, the rise of new technologies and social media platforms has been linked to new forms of cybercrime and online harassment, reflecting the challenges of regulating behavior in the digital age.

Robert Merton and Strain Theory

Robert Merton expanded on Durkheim's work by developing strain theory, which focuses on the disjunction between cultural goals and institutionalized means.

Strain Theory: Goals and Means

Strain theory posits that deviance arises when individuals experience a strain or tension between the goals that society deems desirable (e.g., wealth, success) and the legitimate means available to achieve those goals (e.g., education, hard work).

When individuals lack access to legitimate means, they may resort to deviant behaviors as alternative routes to achieving their goals.

Adaptations to Strain

Merton identified five adaptations to strain: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion.

Conformity involves accepting both the goals and the means, while innovation involves accepting the goals but rejecting the means, leading to deviant behaviors such as theft or fraud.

Ritualism involves rejecting the goals but adhering to the means, often seen in bureaucratic settings where individuals follow rules without believing in the ultimate purpose.

Retreatism involves rejecting both the goals and the means, leading to withdrawal from society, as seen in cases of drug addiction or homelessness.

Finally, rebellion involves rejecting both the goals and the means and seeking to replace them with new ones, often seen in revolutionary movements.

Socio-Economic Inequality

Strain theory has important implications for understanding crime and deviance, particularly in relation to socio-economic inequality.

Individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds may experience greater strain due to limited access to educational and economic opportunities, making them more likely to engage in deviant behavior as a means of achieving their goals.

Edwin Sutherland and Differential Association Theory

Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory shifts the focus from social structures to the learning processes through which individuals acquire deviant behavior.

Differential Association: Learning Deviance

Differential association theory argues that deviance is learned through interaction with others, particularly in intimate personal groups.

Individuals are more likely to engage in deviant behavior if they are exposed to an excess of definitions favorable to deviance over definitions unfavorable to deviance.

Transmission of Deviant Behavior

The theory emphasizes the role of intimate personal groups in transmitting deviant behavior.

For example, a young person who associates with a group of delinquent peers may learn techniques for committing crimes, as well as attitudes and rationalizations that support deviant behavior.

This learning process can occur through observation, imitation, and direct instruction.

Frequency, Duration, Priority, and Intensity

Sutherland identified several factors that influence the learning of deviant behavior, including the frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of associations.

Associations that are frequent, long-lasting, occur early in life, and are with individuals who are highly respected or admired are more likely to have a significant impact on learning deviant behavior.

Travis Hirschi and Social Control Theory

Travis Hirschi's social control theory offers a contrasting perspective, focusing on the factors that prevent individuals from engaging in deviant behavior.

Social Control: Preventing Deviance

Rather than asking why people commit crimes, social control theory asks why people don't commit crimes.

The theory posits that individuals are less likely to engage in deviant behavior when they have strong social bonds that connect them to society.

Elements of Social Bonds

Hirschi identified four elements of social bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.

Attachment refers to the emotional bonds that individuals have with others, particularly family and friends. Commitment refers to the investments that individuals have made in conventional activities, such as education and career.

Involvement refers to the time and energy that individuals spend participating in conventional activities, leaving them less time for deviant behavior. Finally, belief refers to the acceptance of social norms and values.

Juvenile Delinquency

Social control theory has important implications for understanding juvenile delinquency and strategies for strengthening social bonds.

Policies and programs that promote strong family relationships, educational opportunities, and community involvement can help to reduce delinquency by strengthening social bonds and increasing individuals' stake in conformity.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives on Deviance

While classical sociological theories examine the structural underpinnings of deviance, symbolic interactionism offers a micro-level perspective, emphasizing the social construction of deviance through interactions and interpretations.

This approach shifts the focus from the individual deviant to the dynamics of social definition and labeling. It highlights how behaviors become defined as deviant and the consequences of those definitions for individuals and communities.

Key figures in this tradition include Howard Becker, Erving Goffman, and Kai Erikson, each contributing unique insights into the processes by which deviance is created and maintained.

Howard Becker and Labeling Theory

Howard Becker's labeling theory is central to the symbolic interactionist understanding of deviance.

Deviance as a Social Construct

Becker argues that deviance is not an inherent quality of an act but rather a consequence of the application of rules and sanctions to an offender. In other words, deviance is socially constructed.

This perspective emphasizes that no behavior is inherently deviant; it only becomes so when society labels it as such. "Deviant behavior is behavior that people so label," Becker famously stated.

Power and Social Reactions

The application of labels is not a neutral process. It is deeply influenced by power dynamics.

Those in positions of authority, whether formal (e.g., law enforcement) or informal (e.g., community leaders), play a significant role in defining what constitutes deviance and who is likely to be labeled.

Social reactions to behavior, therefore, depend not only on the behavior itself but also on the characteristics of the person committing the act and the social context in which it occurs.

Primary and Secondary Deviance

Labeling theory distinguishes between primary deviance and secondary deviance.

Primary deviance refers to initial acts of deviance that have not yet been publicly labeled. These acts may be sporadic or transient and do not necessarily lead to a change in self-concept or social status.

Secondary deviance, on the other hand, arises when an individual internalizes the deviant label and organizes their self-concept and behavior around it.

This internalization can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where the labeled individual begins to act in accordance with the label, reinforcing the initial perception of deviance.

For example, a youth labeled as a "troublemaker" might begin to associate with other similarly labeled individuals, engaging in more frequent and serious acts of deviance as a result.

Erving Goffman and Stigma

Erving Goffman's work on stigma further illuminates the consequences of labeling and social reactions.

Stigma as a Mark of Social Disgrace

Goffman defines stigma as an attribute that is deeply discrediting, reducing the individual from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one.

Stigma involves a gap between what a person should be, according to social expectations, and what they are perceived to be. This gap leads to social exclusion and discrimination.

Types of Stigma

Goffman identifies three main types of stigma:

Bodily stigmas are physical deformities or disabilities that deviate from societal norms of appearance. An example is visible scars or physical impairments.

Moral stigmas relate to perceived character flaws, such as a history of mental illness, addiction, or criminal behavior. This could also include someone who has been labelled a sex offender.

Tribal stigmas are associated with membership in a particular social group or category, such as race, ethnicity, or religion, that is negatively valued by the dominant culture.

Strategies for Managing Stigma

Individuals facing stigma often employ strategies to manage the social consequences.

Passing involves concealing the stigmatized attribute in an attempt to fit in with the dominant group. An example of this would be people with HIV/AIDS concealing their status.

Covering involves minimizing the visibility or impact of the stigma. This could include using humor to diffuse tension.

Challenging involves directly confronting the stigma by advocating for social change and challenging negative stereotypes. An example of this would be participating in activist movements that are related to the stigma.

The effectiveness of these strategies varies depending on the social context and the nature of the stigma itself.

Kai Erikson and Boundary Maintenance

Kai Erikson's work focuses on the functional role of deviance in maintaining social boundaries.

Deviance and Social Norms

Erikson argues that deviance is not merely a disruptive force but also serves to clarify and reinforce social norms and moral boundaries.

By identifying and responding to deviant behavior, societies reaffirm their shared values and expectations, thereby strengthening social cohesion.

Rituals of Degradation

Societies often employ rituals of degradation to publicly mark and punish deviant individuals. These rituals serve to reinforce social boundaries and deter others from engaging in similar behavior.

Examples of such rituals include public shaming, legal trials, and imprisonment. These processes involve stripping away the individual's previous identity and assigning them a new, deviant status.

Community Response and Social Cohesion

The community plays a critical role in defining and responding to deviance.

The way in which a community responds to deviance can have a significant impact on social cohesion. While excessive punishment can lead to alienation and social fragmentation, a measured and consistent response can reinforce social norms and strengthen community bonds.

Erikson's perspective highlights the complex interplay between deviance, social control, and the maintenance of social order.

Key Concepts in the Study of Deviance

To fully comprehend the complexities of social deviance, it is essential to establish a firm understanding of several core concepts. These concepts provide the analytical tools necessary to dissect and interpret deviant behavior within its broader social context. This section will define and explore norms, sanctions, social control, and deviant subcultures, illuminating their roles in shaping human behavior and maintaining social order.

Norms and Sanctions

Norms are the established rules of behavior or standards of conduct within a society or group. They dictate what is considered acceptable or unacceptable behavior in specific situations. Understanding norms is critical because deviance is fundamentally defined as a violation of these established standards. Norms are diverse and vary in their level of importance.

Types of Norms

• Folkways: These are everyday customs or conventions that carry relatively little moral significance. Violations of folkways are generally met with mild disapproval. Examples include table manners, dress codes, or punctuality. While not strictly enforced, adhering to folkways facilitates smooth social interactions.

• Mores: These are norms that are considered essential to the stability of society. They embody fundamental moral values. Violations of mores typically provoke stronger reactions than violations of folkways. Examples include prohibitions against theft, dishonesty, or disrespect for elders.

• Taboos: These are the strongest and most deeply held norms. They concern actions considered unthinkable or unspeakable within a culture. Violations of taboos often result in extreme social condemnation or even legal punishment. Examples include incest or cannibalism.

• Laws: These are formal, codified norms enacted and enforced by the state. Violations of laws can result in legal sanctions, such as fines, imprisonment, or other forms of punishment. Laws often reflect and reinforce mores, but they can also address a broader range of social issues.

Sanctions as Mechanisms of Social Control

Sanctions are the mechanisms of social control used to enforce norms. They represent the rewards or punishments intended to ensure conformity to social expectations. Sanctions can be formal or informal, and positive or negative.

• Formal Sanctions: These are applied by authorized agents of social control, such as police officers, judges, or school administrators. Formal sanctions can include fines, imprisonment, expulsion from school, or revocation of professional licenses.

• Informal Sanctions: These are applied by ordinary members of society in everyday interactions. Informal sanctions can include expressions of approval or disapproval, such as smiles, compliments, criticism, or ostracism.

• Positive Sanctions: These are rewards for conforming to norms. They can include praise, recognition, awards, or promotions.

• Negative Sanctions: These are punishments for violating norms. They can include criticism, ridicule, fines, or imprisonment.

The effectiveness of sanctions in maintaining social order depends on several factors, including the severity of the sanction, the certainty of its application, and the social context in which it is applied.

The Relationship Between Norms, Sanctions, and Social Order

Norms and sanctions work together to maintain social order by creating a system of expectations and consequences that guide human behavior. Norms define the boundaries of acceptable behavior, while sanctions provide the incentives or deterrents to ensure that individuals adhere to those boundaries.

When norms are clearly defined and consistently enforced through effective sanctions, social order is more likely to prevail. Conversely, when norms are ambiguous or sanctions are weak or inconsistently applied, deviance may become more prevalent. This complex interplay contributes significantly to social stability.

Social Control

Social control refers to the various means by which society attempts to regulate human behavior. The goal is to ensure conformity to norms and maintain social order. It encompasses both formal and informal mechanisms.

Formal Social Control Agents

Formal social control is exercised by institutions and organizations specifically tasked with enforcing laws and maintaining order. These agents include:

• Law Enforcement Agencies: Police departments, the FBI, and other law enforcement agencies are responsible for investigating crimes, apprehending offenders, and enforcing laws.

• Courts: The court system adjudicates legal cases, determines guilt or innocence, and imposes sentences on those convicted of crimes.

• Correctional Institutions: Prisons, jails, and other correctional facilities are responsible for incarcerating offenders and, ideally, rehabilitating them for eventual re-entry into society.

Informal Social Control Agents

Informal social control is exercised by individuals and groups in everyday interactions. These agents play a crucial role in socializing individuals and promoting conformity to social norms. They include:

• Family: The family is the primary agent of socialization. It teaches children basic norms, values, and social skills.

• School: Schools reinforce social norms and values. They also transmit knowledge and skills necessary for success in society.

• Community: The community, including neighbors, friends, and religious organizations, provides a sense of belonging and shared values. This fosters conformity to social norms.

The Role of Internalization in Promoting Conformity

Internalization is the process by which individuals adopt social norms and values as their own. When individuals internalize norms, they conform to them not out of fear of punishment but because they genuinely believe they are the right thing to do. Internalization is a powerful mechanism of social control. It reduces the need for external enforcement.

Deviant Subcultures

A deviant subculture is a group within society that holds values, norms, symbols, and lifestyles that differ significantly from those of the mainstream culture. These subcultures often emerge among individuals who feel marginalized or alienated from mainstream society.

Characteristics of Deviant Subcultures

Deviant subcultures possess several distinguishing characteristics:

• Distinct Values and Norms: They often have their own set of values and norms. These can conflict with those of the dominant culture.

• Unique Symbols and Language: They may use unique symbols, slang, or jargon to communicate and identify themselves.

• Specific Lifestyles: Members often share distinct patterns of behavior, dress, and social interaction.

Examples of Deviant Subcultures

Examples of deviant subcultures in the United States include:

• Gangs: Gangs are groups of individuals, often young people, who engage in criminal activity and violence. They often have a strong sense of loyalty and solidarity among members.

• Drug Cultures: These are groups of individuals who share a common interest in the use of illegal drugs. They often develop their own norms and rituals surrounding drug use.

• Countercultural Movements: These are groups that actively challenge and reject the dominant values and norms of society. Examples include the hippie movement of the 1960s or contemporary activist groups.

  You also like

  How to Write a Lyric Poem: Step-by-Step Guide

The Function of Deviant Subcultures

Deviant subcultures can serve several functions for their members:

• Support and Identity: They provide a sense of belonging, identity, and support for individuals who may feel marginalized or alienated from mainstream society.

• Alternative Values and Norms: They offer alternative values and norms that may be more appealing than those of the dominant culture.

• Resistance to Social Control: They can provide a means of resisting social control and challenging the status quo.

Institutions and Organizations Involved in Addressing Deviance

This section identifies the various institutions and organizations that play a crucial role in addressing deviance within society. These entities range from law enforcement agencies responsible for upholding the law to academic institutions dedicated to researching the causes and consequences of deviant behavior. Understanding the roles and functions of these institutions is essential for a comprehensive understanding of social control and the societal response to deviance.

Law Enforcement Agencies (FBI, Local Police Departments)

Law enforcement agencies, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and local police departments, serve as the frontline of formal social control. Their primary role is to enforce laws, investigate crimes, and apprehend individuals suspected of engaging in deviant behavior. This involves a wide range of activities, from patrolling neighborhoods and responding to emergency calls to conducting complex investigations and making arrests.

The impact of policing strategies on crime rates and community relations is a complex and often debated topic. Different policing approaches, such as community policing, problem-oriented policing, and zero-tolerance policing, can have varying effects on both crime levels and the relationship between law enforcement and the communities they serve.

Community policing emphasizes building trust and collaboration between police officers and residents, while problem-oriented policing focuses on identifying and addressing the underlying causes of crime in specific areas. Zero-tolerance policing, on the other hand, involves strict enforcement of all laws, regardless of their severity, with the goal of deterring crime through a visible police presence.

Controversial policing practices, such as racial profiling and the use of excessive force, can undermine community trust and lead to accusations of discrimination and abuse of power. Addressing these issues requires ongoing efforts to promote police accountability, transparency, and cultural sensitivity.

Policing in diverse and changing societies presents numerous challenges, including implicit bias and maintaining community trust. Implicit bias refers to unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that can influence police officers' perceptions and behaviors, leading to disproportionate targeting of certain racial or ethnic groups. Building community trust requires law enforcement agencies to actively engage with diverse communities, listen to their concerns, and implement policies and practices that promote fairness and equity.

Correctional Institutions (Prisons, Jails)

Correctional institutions, including prisons and jails, are responsible for incarcerating individuals who have been convicted of crimes. The purposes of incarceration are multifaceted, including punishment, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation. Punishment serves as a form of retribution for criminal acts. Deterrence aims to discourage future offending by both the individual and others in society. Rehabilitation seeks to reform offenders through educational, vocational, and therapeutic programs. Incapacitation involves removing offenders from society to prevent them from committing further crimes.

The impact of incarceration on individuals, families, and communities is significant and far-reaching. Incarceration can disrupt family relationships, reduce employment opportunities, and increase the risk of poverty and social isolation. The social and economic costs of mass incarceration, particularly in the United States, are substantial. They include increased spending on prisons and jails, reduced economic productivity, and the perpetuation of cycles of poverty and disadvantage in marginalized communities.

Challenges of re-entry and recidivism are major concerns for correctional systems. Many offenders struggle to successfully reintegrate into society after being released from prison. They may face barriers to employment, housing, and education, as well as ongoing challenges related to substance abuse, mental health issues, and social support.

Potential strategies for improving reintegration outcomes include providing comprehensive re-entry services, such as job training, housing assistance, and substance abuse treatment. Strengthening social support networks and reducing stigma associated with incarceration are also crucial for promoting successful re-entry.

Court Systems

Court systems play a central role in the administration of justice. They adjudicate legal cases, determine guilt or innocence, and impose sentences on those convicted of crimes. The processes of adjudication and sentencing involve a complex series of steps, including arraignment, plea negotiations, trials, and appeals. Judges and juries play critical roles in these processes, weighing evidence, interpreting laws, and making decisions that can have profound consequences for individuals and communities.

The role of plea bargaining and mandatory minimum sentencing has been the subject of considerable debate. Plea bargaining involves negotiations between prosecutors and defendants, in which the defendant agrees to plead guilty to a lesser charge in exchange for a reduced sentence. Mandatory minimum sentencing laws require judges to impose a minimum sentence for certain crimes, regardless of the circumstances. Critics argue that plea bargaining can coerce innocent individuals into pleading guilty, while mandatory minimum sentencing laws can lead to unjust and disproportionate sentences.

The impact of court decisions on social justice and public safety can be significant. Landmark cases have shaped legal precedent and established important protections for individual rights and liberties. Court decisions can also influence public policy and social norms, shaping the way society responds to crime and deviance.

Universities

Universities serve as vital centers for sociological and criminological research on deviance. Researchers at universities conduct studies to understand the causes, consequences, and patterns of deviant behavior. Their work contributes to a deeper understanding of social issues and informs the development of evidence-based policies and interventions.

Funding for this research comes from a variety of sources, including government agencies, private foundations, and universities themselves. The importance of research to understanding deviance cannot be overstated. Rigorous, scientific research provides valuable insights into the complex dynamics of deviance and helps to identify effective strategies for preventing and addressing it.

Sociological Journals (e.g., American Sociological Review, Social Problems)

Sociological journals, such as the American Sociological Review and Social Problems, are key outlets for disseminating research findings on deviance. These journals publish peer-reviewed articles that present original research, theoretical analyses, and critical reviews of the literature. Publishing in these journals requires rigorous adherence to methodological standards and theoretical frameworks.

The publication criteria for sociological journals typically include originality, significance, methodological rigor, and clarity of presentation. The process of peer review involves submitting manuscripts to experts in the field, who evaluate the quality and validity of the research before it is accepted for publication. This process ensures that published research meets high standards of academic excellence.

Criminological Journals (e.g., Criminology, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency)

Criminological journals, such as Criminology and the Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, focus specifically on research related to crime and related deviant behavior. These journals provide a forum for scholars to share their findings on the causes, prevention, and control of crime.

Similar to sociological journals, criminological journals adhere to strict publication criteria and employ a rigorous peer-review process. They play a crucial role in advancing knowledge about crime and deviance and informing evidence-based criminal justice policies.

Textbooks on Sociology, Criminology, and Deviance

Textbooks on sociology, criminology, and deviance provide overviews of the concepts and theories related to deviance. They serve as essential resources for students in higher education, offering comprehensive introductions to the field and its key perspectives.

These textbooks synthesize research findings from various sources, presenting complex ideas in an accessible and engaging manner. They are used in undergraduate and graduate courses to introduce students to the study of deviance and prepare them for further research and analysis.

So, next time you see something that makes you raise an eyebrow and think, "Well, that's different," remember it might just be social deviance in action – a departure from the norms we've collectively agreed upon. It's a fascinating, ever-evolving dance between conformity and challenging the status quo, and understanding it helps us better understand ourselves and the society we live in.